Daily Current Affairs 6 July 2020 | UPSC Current Affairs 2020

Current Affairs Of Today Are

1) Meity-NITI launches Digital India AatmaNirbhar Bharat App Innovation Challenge

• To support and build a strong ecosystem for Indian Apps, MeitY in partnership with Atal Innovation Mission – Niti Aayog launches Digital India AatmaNirbhar Bharat App Innovation Challenge for Indian tech entrepreneurs and Startups. This is to help realize the vision of Prime Minister for building a Digital India and using Digital Technologies for building an AatmaNirbhar Bharat.
• This shall run in 2 tracks: Promotion of Existing Apps and Development of New Apps.
• The focus of the Track 1 App Innovation Challenge, being launched today is to identify the best Indian Apps that are already being used by citizens and have the potential to scale and become world-class Apps in their respective categories. This Innovation Challenge with various cash awards and incentives of featuring Apps on Leader Boards seeks to create an ecosystem where Indian entrepreneurs and Startups are incentivized to ideate, incubate, build, nurture and sustain Tech solutions that can serve not only citizens within India but also the world. The Mantra is to Make in India for India and the World. This shall be completed in a month.
• After this App Innovation Challenge, Government will also launch Track 2 of the AatmaNirbhar Bharat App Innovation Challenge that will seek to identify Indian startups/entrepreneurs/companies and encourage them with ideation,  incubation, prototyping and roll out of applications. This track will run for a longer course of time, details of which shall be provided separately.
• The AatmaNirbhar Bharat App Innovation Challenge Track 1 is being launched in the following 8 broad categories:
• Office Productivity & Work from Home
• Social Networking
• E-Learning
• Entertainment
• Health & Wellness
• Business including Agritech and Fin-tech
• News
• Games.
• There may be several subcategories within each category.
  
• A specific Jury for each track with experts from Private Sector & Academia will evaluate the entries received. Shortlisted Apps will be given awards & will also feature on Leader boards for information of citizens. The government will also adopt suitable Apps, guide them to maturity, and list on Government e-Marketplace (GeM).           
• Some of the Key Evaluation parameters will include Ease of use (UI/UX), Robustness, Security, and Scalability

Source: PIB

2) Genetics could help diagnose type-1 diabetes in Indians

• Researchers at the KEM Hospital and Research Centre, Pune; CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad; and the University of Exeter in the UK have found that a genetic risk score is effective in diagnosing type-1 diabetes in Indians. The outcome of their research has been published in Scientific Reports.
• Now, what is this genetic risk score? Developed by the University of Exeter, the genetic risk score takes into account detailed genetic information that is known to increase the chance of developing type-1 diabetes. The score may be used at the time of diabetes diagnosis to help decide if someone has type-1 diabetes.
• Will the European genetic risk score be effective in diagnosing type-1 diabetes in Indians? This was the question that naturally arises as the bulk of the research in this field has been conducted in European populations. To answer this question, the research team studied people with diabetes from Pune, India, using the genetic risk score. The team analyzed 262 people with type-1 diabetes, 352 people with type-2 diabetes, and 334 people without diabetes. All were of Indian (Indo-European) ancestry. The research outcomes compared well with those in Europeans as revealed in the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium Study.
• It is widely believed that only children and adolescents get type-1 diabetes and obese and older (typically after 45 years of age) get type-2 diabetes. However, recent findings have shown that type-1 diabetes can occur later in life, while type-2 diabetes is on the rise among younger and thinner Indians. Distinguishing the two types of diabetes, has, therefore, become more complex. The two types follow different treatment regimes with type-1 diabetes needing lifelong insulin injections but type-2 diabetes often being managed with diet or tablet treatment. Misclassification of the type of diabetes may lead to sub-standard diabetes care and possible complications. In this context, this particular study gains importance as it helps in diagnosing diabetes from its type-1 and type 2 variants correctly.
• Although based on European data, the researchers found that the test is effective in diagnosing the right type of diabetes in Indians, even in its current form. They have also found genetic differences between the populations, indicating that the test could be further improved to enhance outcomes for Indian populations.
• Diagnosing the right diabetes type is an increasingly difficult challenge for clinicians, as we now know that type 1 diabetes can occur at any age. This task is even harder in India, as more cases of type 2 diabetes occur in people with low BMI. We now know that our genetic risk score is an effective tool for Indians, and can help get people on the treatment they need to avoid life-threatening complications such as diabetic ketoacidosis and to achieve the best health outcomes, said Dr. Richard Oram, of the University of Exeter Medical School.
• Dr. ChittaranjanYajnik of the KEM Hospital and Research Centre, Pune agrees with Dr. Oram. He said that the escalating epidemic of diabetes in young Indians makes it imperative that we diagnose the type of diabetes correctly to avoid mistreatment and its long-term biological, social, and economic implications. The new genetic tool will be a great help in this. It will help decide the contribution of failing pancreatic B-cells against reduced action of insulin due to excess fat and smaller muscle mass in the body of Indians (‘thin-fat Indians’). He further said, “We look forward to using this test in diabetic patients from different parts of India where the physical characteristics of diabetic patients differ from the standard description”.

Source: PIB

3) Increasing E-waste

• According to a recent United Nations University (UNU) report, global e-waste will increase by 38% in the decade between 2020 and 2030.
• UNU is a global think tank and postgraduate teaching organization headquartered in Japan.
• UNU’s mission is to resolve the pressing global problems of human survival, development, and welfare that are the concern of the United Nations, its peoples, and the member states.

E-Waste

• E-Waste is short for Electronic-Waste and the term used to describe old, end-of-life or discarded electronic appliances.
• It is categorized into 21 types under two broad categories:
• Information technology and communication equipment.
• Consumer electrical and electronics.
• E-waste includes its components, consumables, parts, and spares.

Key Points

• Data Analysis of 2019:
• There were 53.6 million tonnes (MT) e-waste in 2019, which is a nearly 21% increase in just five years.
• Asia generated the greatest volume (around 24.9 MT) followed by the Americas (13.1 MT) and Europe (12 MT). Africa and Oceania generated 2.9 MT and 0.7 MT respectively.
• Most E-waste consisted of small and large equipment like screens and monitors, lamps, telecommunication equipment, etc, and temperature exchange equipment.
• Less than 18% of the e-waste generated in 2019 was collected and recycled.
• E-waste consisting of gold, silver, copper, platinum, and other high-value, recoverable materials worth at least USD 57 billion was mostly dumped or burned rather than being collected for treatment and reuse.
• The number of countries that have adopted a national e-waste policy, legislation, or regulation has increased from 61 to 78 and includes India.
• It is far from the target set by the International Telecommunication Union to raise the percentage of countries with e-waste legislation to 50%.
• Concerns:
• Toxicity: E-waste consists of toxic elements such as Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, Chromium, Polybrominated biphenyls, and Polybrominated diphenyl.
• Effects on Humans: Some of the major health effects include serious illnesses such as lung cancer, respiratory problems, bronchitis, brain damages, etc due to inhalation of toxic fumes, exposure to heavy metals, and alike.
• Effects on Environment: E-waste is an environmental hazard causing groundwater pollution, acidification of soil, and contamination of groundwater and air pollution due to the burning of plastic and other remnants.

E-waste in India

• Structured management of e-waste in India is mandated under the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016.
• Some of the salient features of the rules include e-waste classification, extended producer responsibility (EPR), collection targets, and restrictions on import of e-waste containing hazardous materials.
• There are 312 authorized recyclers of e-waste in India, with the capacity for treating approximately 800 kilotons annually. However, formal recycling capacity remains underutilized because over 90% of the e-waste is still handled by the informal sector.
• Almost over a million people in India are involved in manual recycling operations. Workers are not registered so it is hard to track the issues of employment such as workers’ rights, remunerations, safety measures, etc.
• Laborers are from the vulnerable sections of the society and lack any form of bargaining power and are not aware of their rights. This has a serious impact on the environment since none of the procedures is followed by workers or local dealers.

Way Forward

• It is needed to come up with a strategy to engage with informal sector workers because doing so will not only go a long way in better e-waste management practices but also aid in environmental protection, improve the health and working conditions of laborers and provide better work opportunities to over a million people.
• This will make management environmentally sustainable and easy to monitor.
• The need of the hour is to generate employment, which can be done through identifying and promoting cooperatives and expanding the scope of the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 to these cooperatives or the informal sector workers.
• Effective implementation of regulations is the way ahead to managing the e-waste that is yet to be regulated in at least 115 countries.

Source: Down To Earth

4) Natanz: Underground Nuclear Facility of Iran

• Recently, a fire broke out at Natanz, an Underground Nuclear Facility of Iran used for enriching uranium.
• Enriched uranium is a type of uranium in which the percent composition of uranium-235 is increased.

Key Points

• Natanz:
• Located in Iran’s central Isfahan province in Tehran, Natanz hosts the country’s main uranium enrichment facility.
• It is known as the first Pilot Fuel Enrichment Plant of Iran.
• Fordow Fuel Enrichment Plant (FFEP) is Iran's second pilot enrichment plant.
• It is among the sites monitored by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) after Iran’s 2015 nuclear deal with world powers i.e. the USA, UK, France, China, Russia, and Germany.
• Controversy:
• IAEA Inspection: Natanz became a point of controversy as Iran refused to allow an IAEA inspector into the facility in October 2019, after allegedly testing positive for suspected traces of explosive nitrates.
• Nitrates are a common fertilizer, however, when mixed with proper amounts of fuel, the material can become explosive as powerful as Trinitrotoluene (TNT).
• TNT is also known as 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene and does not occur naturally in the environment.
• It is an explosive used in military shells, bombs, and grenades, and in underwater blasting.
• Stuxnet Computer Virus: The Stuxnet computer virus, believed to be an American and Israeli creation, disrupted and destroyed centrifuges at Natanz amid the height of Western concerns over Iran’s nuclear program in 2010.
• USA’s Response: The USA has unilaterally withdrawn from the nuclear deal in May 2018 as Iran has continuously been breaking all the production limits set by the deal.
• According to the IAEA Iran enriches uranium to about 4.5 % purity, above the terms of the nuclear deal.

International Atomic Energy Agency

• Widely known as the world’s “Atoms for Peace and Development” organization within the United Nations family, the IAEA is the international center for cooperation in the nuclear field.
• The IAEA was created in 1957 in response to the deep fears and expectations generated by the discoveries and diverse uses of nuclear technology.
• Headquarter: Vienna, Austria.
• The Agency works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide to promote the safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear technologies.
• In 2005 it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their work for a safe and peaceful world.
• Functions: It is an independent international organization that reports annually to the United Nations General Assembly. When necessary, the IAEA also reports to the UN Security Council in regards to instances of members’ non-compliance with safeguards and security obligations.

Source: Indian Express

5) A non-caloric natural sweetener that can make cancer therapy using magnetic nanoparticles more efficient

• Stevioside (STE), isolated from the leaves of Honey yerba and widely used as the non-caloric natural sweeteners, can sweeten our lives in more ways than one, say scientists.
• Researchers at the Institute of Nano Science & Technology an autonomous institute of Department of Science and Technology (INST), Government of India in their recent study have found that stevioside, a natural plant-based glycoside found in leaves of Honey yerba  (‘Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni’) when coated on nanoparticles can increase the efficiency of Magnetic hyperthermia-mediated cancer therapy (MHCT).
• MHCT method of cancer therapy is based on heating the tumor tissues using magnetic nanoparticles in comparison to the routinely used surfactant moieties (oleic acid and polysorbate-80) and is based on the generation of localized heat at the tumor site on exposure to AMF (alternating magnetic field) in the presence of magnetic nanoparticles.
• research published in the International Journal of Hyperthermia showed that coating the nanoparticles with the stevioside, a biosurfactant not only improved the cellular uptake of the nano-magnets in glioma C6 cancer cells (one of the most common and aggressive forms of glial cancer cells) but also enhanced its retention time. The researchers have modified the stevioside structure to make it more effective as a biosurfactant for magnetic nanoclusters synthesized in the Lab. The Manuscript related to the same was submitted to the Journal of ACS Molecular Pharmaceutics.
• The stevioside coating exhibited significant improvement in the calorimetric hyperthermia activity, through particle size reduction of magnetic nanoparticles, thereby intensifying the magnetic hyperthermia-mediated cancer therapy. Exposure of magnetic nanoparticles to alternating magnetic field leads to temperature rise from 37 to 42−45°C inducing tumor cell death by triggering activation of certain intracellular and extracellular degradation mechanisms.
• Controlling the magnetic properties of a nanoparticle efficiently via its particle size to achieve optimized heat under AMF is the critical point for magnetic hyperthermia-mediated cancer therapy. The INST team has shown that the use of stevioside as a promising biosurfactant controls the magnetic properties of Fe3O4 nanoparticles by controlling the particle size
• The hyperthermia output measured in terms of specific absorption rate (SAR), defined as the power dissipation per unit mass of magnetic content (W/g), for stevioside-coated nanoparticles obtained was 3913.55 W/g Fe which was significantly higher than those for other existing nanosystems at a field strength of 405 kHz and 168 Oe. The stevioside coating increases the switching speed of the magnetic spin of synthesized nanomaterial, increasing the thermal fluctuations and resulting in a higher amount of heat generated in comparison to other nanosystems.
• The hyperthermia output of nano-magnets reduces dramatically on the agglomeration of nanoparticles. Hence, the INST team developed water-stable nanomaterial with a biomolecule as the surfactant to address two of the main concerns regarding the translation of nanotechnology-based strategies to clinical applications -- biocompatibility of the material used and therapeutic response of these nano-systems. Stevioside stands out for being antihyperglycemic, immunomodulatory, and sports antitumor action. Therefore, surface modification of magnetite nanoparticles with stevioside may provide dual targeting of cancer cells, namely with magnetite nanoparticles based cancer therapy and the antitumor effect of the stevioside coating onto the particles.
• Stevioside-coated nanoparticles also demonstrated successful uptake and highest cellular persistence inside the glioma cells upto 72 h. Thus the research suggests that the nano-magnets are capable of being available inside the cells for a sufficient period (upto at least 72 h) during which further treatment strategies can be employed for cancer therapy, thus avoiding the need to re-administer the nanomaterials. 

Source: PIB

6) Strength of CoM in Madhya Pradesh

Recently, it has been alleged that the strength of the Council of Ministers (CoM) in Madhya Pradesh exceeds the prescribed Constitutional limit.

Key Points

• The recent expansion of the Ministry in Madhya Pradesh has increased the Council of Ministers' strength to 34, which is more than 15% of the effective strength of the legislators at 206.
• The effective strength of the House is calculated by deducting the vacant seats out of the total strength of the House.
• Article 164 (1A) of the Constitution prescribed that the total number of Ministers, including the Chief Minister, in the Council of Ministers in a State shall not exceed 15% of the total number of members of the Legislative Assembly of that State.
• Provided that the number of Ministers, including the Chief Minister in a State, shall not be less than twelve.
• This provision was introduced through the 91st Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2003.
• The Assembly strength of 228 dropped to 206 in March 2020, when 22 rebel Congress MLAs resigned, toppling the then government. Two seats fell vacant earlier owing to deaths.

Council of Ministers in State

• The Council of Ministers in the states is constituted and function in the same way as the Council of Ministers at the Centre.
• Article 163 (1) provides that there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister as the head to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions.
• However, the Constitution does not specify the size of the State Council of Ministers or the ranking of ministers. They are determined by the chief minister according to the exigencies of the time and requirements of the situation
• Article 164 (1) provides that the Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister.
• However, in the states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha, there shall be a Minister in charge of tribal welfare who may, besides, be in charge of the welfare of the scheduled castes and backward classes or any other work.
• Article 164 (2) provides that the Council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the State Legislative Assembly.
• Article 164 (4) provides that a person can remain as Minister without being a member of the state legislature for six consecutive months.
• Article 164 (1B) provides that a member of either House of the state legislature who is disqualified on the ground of defection shall also be disqualified to be appointed as a Minister.

Source: The Hindu

7)  Infant mortality rate surged in M.P. in 2018

Data accessed from the Office of the Registrar General India.

Background:

• Infant Mortality Rate:
• Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths per 1,000 live births of children under one year of age. The rate for a given region is the number of children dying under one year of age, divided by the number of live births during the year, multiplied by 1,000.

Details:

• India’s average IMR has dropped by one point to 32. The country’s average stands at 36 deaths for rural and 23 for urban areas.
• The infant mortality rate (IMR) in Madhya Pradesh has increased to 48 in 2018, stymying an improving annual trend for at least six years. Madhya Pradesh has the country’s worst IMR.
• Kerala which has the lowest IMR among the bigger states has decreased its IMR by three points to 7.

Contributing factors:

• Early neonatal deaths form the largest chunk of IMR in states like MP. Increasing premature deliveries, infections, birth asphyxiation, and delay in securing treatment leading to complicated deliveries were the major causes of Infant mortality.
• A major concern is also birth spacing as in most cases two children were born within one-one and a half years against the advised gap of around three years. This may result in premature deliveries of low birth weight babies.
• The higher infant mortality was recorded in states where high malnutrition levels were a major cause.
• Maternal health also had a bearing on the IMR.
• In 2015-2017, Madhya Pradesh registered a maternal mortality ratio of 188 per 1 lakh live births, against the country’s average of 122.

Way forward:

• Antenatal and postnatal care are important aspects of bringing down infant mortalities.
• According to the National Family Health Survey -4 (2015-16), only 11.4% of mothers received full antenatal care implying that antenatal check-ups for pregnant women are very minimal.
• The primary health system needs to be ramped up to meet the demands of the people in the hinterlands.
• Pediatric intensive care units need to be set up in all districts to increase accessibility.
• There is a need to encourage community referrals and ensuring timely treatment by training workers at health and wellness centers.

Source: The Hindu

8) Researchers have found Ophicordyceps nutans fungi, for the first time in central India.

• Researchers have now found the fungi Ophicordyceps nutans for the first time in central India in Kanger Valley National Park in Chhattisgarh.
• The Ophicordyceps nutans have been previously reported in India only from the Western Ghats.
• The fungus was found on the host insect Halyomorpha Halys.
• Also called the stink bug, this insect is a pest to forest trees and agricultural crops. The stink bug is known to damage the flower and fruits of soybean, green beans, apple, and pear.

The life cycle of the fungi:

• The life cycle of the fungi involves infecting the insect when alive, developing fungal mycelium inside its thorax, and when it is time for the spores to come out, kills the bug.
• The fruiting body sprouts out from between the insect’s thorax and head, and it continues to take nutrition from the dead body. The fungi are very host-specific, so the spores travel and infect many more stink bugs.

Significance:

• Previous studies have shown that these fungi can be used as a biological pest control agent.
• Exploring these fungi as a pesticide will help reduce the harmful effect of chemicals in agricultural fields.
• Several species of the Ophiocordyceps fungi have medicinal properties.
• Reports have shown that China has been traditionally using it. Also, in the Western Ghats, the local people use these fungi as an immune stimulator.
• Studies from across the globe have noted that this fungus is rich in biologically active metabolites, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, and also has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.
• Some studies also claim that it contains a component called ‘cordycepin’ which has anti-cancer properties.

Source: The Hindu 

9) Proposal for the national logistics law.

• India’s logistics sector is highly fragmented and the government aims to reduce the logistics cost from the present 14% of the Gross Domestic Product to less than 10%.

Details:

• The Commerce Ministry is considering replacing the Multi-Modal Transportation of Goods Act (MMTG) with a full-fledged national logistics law to promoting the growth of the sector.
• Multimodal transportation refers to a combination of more than one mode of movement, such as rail, road or sea, for end-to-end delivery of goods.
• A National Logistics Efficiency and Advancement Predictability and Safety Act (NLEAPS) is under consideration.

Significance:

• The new law aims to define what the logistics sector is and its various participants are. The new law aims to create a light regulatory ecosystem.
• The move assumes significance as high logistics cost impacts the competitiveness of domestic goods in the international market. Effective implementation of the policy would help provide an impetus to trade, enhance export competitiveness, and improve India’s ranking in the Logistics Performance Index.

Source: Mint

10) Use of Raman Spectroscopy for virus analysis.

• Raman Spectroscopy is a non-destructive chemical analysis technique that provides detailed information about chemical structure, phase, crystallinity, and molecular interactions. It is based upon the interaction of light with the chemical bonds within a material.

Details:

• The Mumbai-based Tata Memorial Centre has been trying to use Raman Spectroscopy to detect RNA viruses present in saliva samples. It aims to analyze non-infectious RNA viruses using conventional Raman Spectroscopy without using any additional reagent to enhance the signal.
• This tool, the first of its kind, takes raw data from a Raman Spectrometer analysis based on the 65-spectra signature and provides an objective output if viral RNA is present or absent in the sample.
• Since the tool can only identify RNA viruses and not identify the specific one, it can be used only for screening.

Significance:

• This conceptual framework to detect RNA viruses in saliva could form the basis for field application of Raman Spectroscopy in managing viral outbreaks, such as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.
• A portable Raman spectrophotometer installed at the port of entry such as airports or any point of care can screen passengers within minutes.
• The advantage is that the tool can be taken to the field and people who test positive for RNA virus can be quarantined while another sample may be sent for validation using RT-PCR.

Source: The Hindu

11) Indigenous Indian COVID19 vaccines in the global race to end the pandemic

• With the announcement of COVAXIN by Bharat Biotech and ZyCov-D Vaccine by Zydus Cadila the proverbial silver line in the dark clouds of COVID19 appears at the horizon. Now the nod given by the Drug Controller General of India CDSCO (The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation) for the conduct of the human trial for the vaccines, marks the beginning of the end.
• In the past years, India has emerged as one of the significant vaccine manufacturing hubs. Indian manufacturers account for 60% of vaccine supplies made to UNICEF. The vaccine for novel coronavirus may be developed anywhere in the world, but without Indian manufacturers involved the production of the required quantity is not going to be feasible.

Vaccine race

• More than 140 candidate vaccines are under various stages of development. One of the leading candidates is AZD1222 developed Jenner Institute of University of Oxford and licensed to AstraZeneca British-Swedish multinational pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical company headquartered in Cambridge, England. The mRNA-1273 vaccine developed by Kaiser Permanente Washington Health Research Institute, Washington, and taken up for production by the US-based Moderna pharmaceutical is just a step behind. Both these firms have already inked an agreement with Indian manufacturers for the production of the COVID vaccines.
• Parallelly Indian institutions have also engaged in R&D for the development of vaccines in India. With the primary scientific inputs coming from institutions like Pune based ICMR institution National Institute of Virology and Hyderabad based CSIR institution Center for Cellular and Molecular Biology, six Indian companies are working on a vaccine for COVID-19. Along with the two Indian vaccines, COVAXIN and ZyCov-D, the world over, 11 out of 140 vaccine candidates have entered the human trials.

Immune system

• Antigen from the pathogen and antibodies produced by the human immune cells can be thought of as matching the compatible pair. Every pathogen has specific molecular structures called as antigen. They are like the surface with a particular hue and design. Once infected by the germ, the human immune system develops antibodies that match the antigen.
• Just as the retailer of design matching material stockpile hundreds of design pieces of riots of colors and hues, our immune system has ten thousand types of antibodies. If the pathogen is a known enemy, the immune system can pull the matching design piece from the stock. Once the match is made the pathogen is inactivated. No longer it can infect.
• However, if the microorganism is unfamiliar, and mainly when it has evolved for the first time, there is no matching color and hue in the repertoire.  Nonetheless, unlike the textile, the antibody can evolve. At first, near matches are tried. After various cycles of antibody development, the best fit matures. The time lag between the identification of the main surface color that is an antigen, and finding a pairing design piece, that is antibodies, is what makes the infection mild or severe. If only the immune system can neutralize the germ instantly, the infection can be prevented.

Immune System memory and vaccine

• Like a new hue of design piece once acquired is stocked for the future, once the new antibody matching the antigen evolves, it is retained in the immunological memory. Next time the same pathogen invades, immunological memory gets activated, and the twinned antibody is released. The infection is nipped in the bud. We acquire immunity.
• A vaccine is a method of artificially inducing immunological memory. Once the antigens of the nasty pathogen are introduced, the immune system is triggered into developing pairing antibodies and immunological memory.
• There are many ways in which one can artificially stroke the immune system to develop antibodies and memory. The bottom line is presenting the antigens of the novel coronavirus to the human immune system. From adenovirus-based live-attenuated virus to recombinant genetic technology is used to develop several types of vaccines. Two of the various possibilities produced in India are inactivated virus vaccine and DNA plasmid vaccine.

How these vaccines work

• We can inactivate a whole virus with heat or formaldehyde (that is 'killed'), yet keep the antigen molecular structures still intact. However, the inactivated virus will not be able to infect or cause disease, as it is no longer functional. The Bharat Biotech's COVAXIN uses the virus isolated from an Indian patient by the National Institute of Virology to develop the inactivated virus vaccine.
• Novel coronavirus infects the human cells with the help of its spike proteins. The spike protein of the virus binds with the ACE2 receptors on the surface of the human respiratory tract cells. Once the virus fuse, the viral genome is slipped into the human cell where around a thousand copies of the virus are made in just ten hours. These baby viruses emigrate to nearby cells. Infection can be arrested if only we can deactivate the spike protein of the novel coronavirus.  Thus the antigen on the spike protein is a crucial vaccine target. If the antibody blocks the spike protein, then the virus cannot bind the cell and multiply.
• The genomic code of the spike protein is spliced into a harmless DNA plasmid. This modified plasmid DNA with the genetic code of viral spike protein is introduced into the host cells. The cellular machinery translates the DNA and produces the viral protein encoded in the genome. The human immune system recognizes the alien protein and develops a matching antibody. After this vaccination, if at any time, we are infected by the novel coronavirus, then sensing the spike protein antibodies are released instantly. The immune killer cells seize deactivated viruses. Contagion is arrested even before infection sets in.

Source: PIB